Spain

Spring 2013 I spent five months abroad in Granada, Spain. While there, I learned a lot about the history of Spain and how the roles a woman plays have changed throughout the years. Religiously, spiritually, and politically, women in Spain are not treated the same way they were during the Spanish Civil War 38 years ago. During the Spanish Civil War, there were many laws that were made to limit the freedom a woman had. General Francisco Franco was the head of the government and essentially was the ultimate decision maker during this period. One of the laws that Franco set in place was The Law of Succession made in 1947 that renamed Spain as a "Catholic, social, and representative monarchy" (Solsten. 22). Under this law, Franco was able to chose a king whenever he wanted to and was also able to revoke his choice if wanted. He was the ruler until he said he would no longer be. As a Catholic governed country, a woman had certain things she could no longer do. Spain become a very conservative state, and all of the laws were strongly enforced to the point that Catholicism was even present in the education system. In Catholicism, divorce is not recognized and all marriages must be canonical (sanctioned by the church) to be legally recognized. Contraception was banned and abortion abolished. Catholicism was the only recognized religion so no other religion could be advertised in any way. This Law of Succession dictated how a woman could and could not live her life.

There was another Spanish law put in place called "permiso marital" (marital permission) which banned women from traveling, working, and owning property without her husbands permission. These laws lead to a very strong misogyny environment that deemed a women to be submissive while her husband is very dominant. Single women could not go out without a chaperone and they could often be "given away" in arranged marriages (Hogan). If the woman was given away to a man that is abusive, divorce was not an option so she would essentially be stuck in an unhealthy marriage.

The oppression that spanish women endured during their civil war led to a female resistance called "Mujeres Libres" (Free Women in English). These women were anarchists that were fighting for the rights of women, so they essentially were fighting for two ideals at once. One focus of this group was called "capacitacion", which made sure that women had a clear idea of their potential and skills so that they would be able to really contribute in a new society, with men as their equals. The other focus was  called "captacion" - which meant the active incorporation of women into the anarchist movement (Hogan). Mujeres Libres were all about action, they did everything they possibly could to make sure that they were very vocal about their demands and that they were being taken seriously. In Barcelona they ran a lying-in hospital, which provided birth and post-natal care for women, as well as classes on child and maternal health, birth control and sexuality (O'Carroll). Some of them fought along the side of men in the civil war, they published their own magazine, and opened up a school to combat illiteracy among women. This revolution only last for a couple of years but the effort put forth by many inspirational women had a lasting effect on the spanish society. It lifted the spirit of the spanish women and let the world know that they were not going to be oppressed any longer without fighting back.

In 1975 Franco chose Juan Carlos to become the King of Spain. Later that year, Franco died so he did not live to see the transformation Spain was about to undergo. Many lower class and working class citizens were not excited to have a new King because he was chosen by Franco. Juan Carlos changed their opinions of him over the years however, as Spain became a democratic nation. Many laws made by Franco were lifted after his death, for example "permiso marital" was abolished in 1975, laws against adultery were cancelled in 1978; and divorce was legalized in 1981. In 1978 the ban on contraception was lifted, but there was little access to information about how to use it. During this time there were many unwanted pregnancies and with abortion still being outlawed, this meant a jump in the number of illegal abortions. A 1974 government report estimated that there were about 300,000 such abortions each year. Subsequently, the number rose to about 350,000 annually, which gave Spain one of the highest ratios of abortions to live births among advanced industrial countries (Solsten). Finally, in 1985 abortion was legalized but only in certain cases, usually dependent upon the permission of two physicians. More and more women were entering the job force but because the lack of part-time jobs, the numbers only reached around 33% by 1984. The enrollment number for females throughout the Franco rule and up to this time however, remained fairly equivalent to that of men. In 1981, there was a new law passed that permitted divorce after a two year legal separation. And finally, in 1987 the supreme court decided that it is not necessary for a woman to prove that she did not provoke her attacker to rape her. 

The new democracy was only the start of change for women's roles. Today, there has been much more improvement in the lives of the spanish women. According to The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World (p. 122), in 2005 45% of spanish women were working for pay. For a while church and state were separate, but today you can still see how much influence Catholicism has in the Spanish culture today. The national holidays are often times than not, part of the Catholic religion, and there are countless Cathedrals in Spain. From my understanding, many people consider themselves to be Catholic but in masses it is mostly children and elders that attend mass. I know a few Spanish couples that are separated from their spouses but will not get a divorce because it is not accepted in the Catholic faith, even though it can legally be done by the state. I also know a Spanish couple that is not legally married but they live as though they are. Women now have the option to marry if they want and whom they want. The way women are seen and live their lives are changing. In 2007 thin models were banned from run ways and it is now illegal for mannequins to be less than a size 6 (Lee). This demonstrates that spanish women expect change to come and will do whatever it takes to make sure it does.

Though there has been many improvements in the lives of spanish women, there is one problem in particular that could use some special attention. Domestic violence has been a problem in Spain ever since the idea of "machismo" came along - which pretty much means that women have lesser value than men. In 1997 a women named Ana Orantes went on public television to announce that she had been abused by her husband for decades. Though she was legally separated, she remained living with her husband due to court orders. Two weeks later Orantes was beat, drenched in gasoline, and then set on fire by her husband. Her death initiated the transformation of domestic violence being a personal issue kept in the family, to a crime.

Since the death of Orantes, official work has been done to create awareness around domestic violence and the machismo culture that has increased over the years. The spanish government has invested money into shelters that provide battered women a safe haven. Domestic laws have been created that both shortened the amount of time it take to get a divorce (from 2 years to 6 months), and increased the penalty (Loewenburg). Since Spain's economy is not doing so well, in 2012 the budgets that went to the prevention of gender violence has been cut by 21.6 % (Cooper). There are women in political positions like Ana Pato, the Minister for Health, Social Security and Equality; and Ana Maria Perez del Campo, the president of the Federation of Separated and Divorced Women. Both Pato and del Campo are determined to end this machismo nature and they are in the positions to actually make it happen. Throughout the years, women have been discriminated against religiously, politically, and culturally. They have begun to fight for their rights through social movements and have made political change happen. The fight is not yet over, but the voice of spanish women is being heard loud and clear.

Works Cited

Cooper, Liz. "No more 'machismo': domestic violence in the political arena". November 30, 2012. Web. 12 October 2013. <http://www.opendemocracy.net/5050/liz-cooper/no-more-‘machismo’-domestic-violence-in-political-arena>

Hogan, Deirdre. "Free Women of Spain", Workers Solidarity No. 57. May 1999. Web. 11 October 2013 <http://web.archive.org/web/20051023002218/http://www.infoshop.org/iau/spain1.html>

Lee, Janet and Shaw, Susan M. "Spain Bans Skinny Mannequins", Women Worldwide transnational feminist perspectives on women. 2011, McGraw Hill. Print.

Loewenberg, Samuel. "Domestic Violence in Spain", The Lancet. 2005. Web. 13 October 2013. <http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0140673605178842>

O'Carroll, Aileen. "Mujeres Libres", Workers Solidarity No, 54. June 1998. Web. 11 October 2013. <http://flag.blackened.net/revolt/ws98/ws54_mujeres_libres.html>

Seager, Joni. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World. 2009, Penguin Books. Print.

Solsten, Eric and Meditz, Sandra W., Spain: A Country Study. 1988, Washington. Web. 11 October 2013. <http://countrystudies.us/spain/22.htm>

Solsten, Eric and Meditz, Sandra W., Spain: A Country Study. 1988, Washington. Web. October 2013. <http://countrystudies.us/spain/43.htm>

Ethiopia

                                                                                                                   Erin Bolden

                                                                                                               October 17^th, 2013

                                                                                                        Women Studies

      I am going to dicuss the issues that women encounter in Ethiopa. Ethiopa is one of the poorest country so with that being said there is things that need to be discussed. There is a lot of issues as far as political , social, economic but the three that I am going to focus on. The specific gender that I am going to focus on is Women. And talk about their  health, violence and abuse that they have to go through

 and lastly their culture and traditions in general. There culture and traditions aren't an issue but I am focusing on what women do in Ethiopia and how it is different in America.

                                                            Ethiopia’s Health

    Ethiopia is one of the poorest country, with 45% of its 77 million populations living below the poverty line.  75 % of the population lack access to clean water and 80% of them live without proper sanitation. Ethiopia  is a state that has the highest with maternal deaths. The maternal mortality ratio in Ethiopia is 676 for every 100,000. Large majority of Ethiopian women are currently living in poverty. They are going through harmful cultural practices like the female genital cutting, and gender discrimination, like making them  have unattended births." About 80% percent of all maternal deaths in Ethiopia are due to hemorrhage, infection, unsafe abortions, HIV/AIDS and Malaria" said a senior health ministry maternal health expert, Frewolve Gebreniwot.  As well as these circumstances causes death, at least 500,000 Ethiopian women and girls miss out on skilled healthcare during their delivers and end up suffering complications like Obstetric Fistula. The female cutting is among one of the most culturally problems affecting women’s health and solutions that are effective for them are really hard to come by. 74% of the Ethiopian women have been through female genital cutting.  1% of women ages around 15-19 has had this done and 74% has around the age 20-24.  89 % of Ethiopian women do not have access to the right obstetric care to help through their health problems. They use 5.7 percent of their GDP on health.  The affects from the female genital cutting is urinary, reproductive tract infection, death by severe bleeding and have a higher increase in susceptibility to HIV/AIDS, hepatitis and other blood borne diseases. In their culture a women who isn't circumcised is looked at being promiscuous and a bad thing to their family. Also it protects their virginity.

                                             Ethiopia’s Violence and abuse

    Intimate partner violence is the most common form of violence against women and an important cause of morbidity and mortality. Most common forms of violence against women are physical, sexual and emotional abuse by husbands or their significant other. 58% of women have experienced physical abuse by an intimate partner in their lifetimes. About 8% of women were abducted and forced into their marriage.  They are forced to get married at a young age.  In 2000 the acceptable age of marriage for women was around the ages 12-14 but some married at the age of 9. That wasn't against the law but they recently changed that. In urban areas the marriage age has always been 18.  In marriages you are required to give out gifts. If the women's family is poor she will have to be hidden in her house for three months. Just because her family doesn't have the money to cater to her husband. After her three months of being hidden away that is when she can be presented to the community and to her future husband’s family.   69% percent of women in Ethiopia say it is acceptable for a husband to beat his wife for one or more specific reasons such as burning food, arguing with him, going out without telling him, neglecting the children and refusing to have sex with him. Rape is also very common.  There is violence against women because in society women aren’t treated equally as men are treated. So they take advantage of them. They even have to go through this when they are pregnant. 8% reported that they have experimented physical abuse during at least one pregnancy. They are getting kicked and punched in their abdoman. The perpetrators are usually are the fathers of the babies or it is the family. Violence is taking place in their homes, on the streets, in schools, the workplace, farm areas, and as well as refugee camps. In a refugee camp that is a place where a person is demonstrated their view of power.  Violence against women is not only a manifestation of sex inequality, but also serves to maintain this unequal balance of power. Also perpetrators consciously use violence as a mechanism for subordination. Men think their jobs aren't accomplished unless they physically abuse women. Violence against women is abnormal and isn't healthy. These women had experienced sexual abuse at the age of 15 and were forced into it. They didn't want to seek help. A lot of them didn’t want to report it because they were scared that the perpetrator would come after them and they got in their head that wasn’t” normal or “not serious”. They were just too ashamed, and didn't have any self -assurance. Not speaking out has a lot to do with their Ethiopian culture.  They show that they are the head of the household and they have more power. Recent research showed that violence against women is the most common problem among women in refugee camps. Refugee women are being victimized at least twice in their lives. These women do so much not only for their husbands but also their families. They are the ones doing the house work, going out trying to find food for them to eat but they still get treated like this. And this is not right at all.

                                               Ethiopia’s Culture and Traditions

   When a woman is pregnant, it isn’t really discussed until the pregnancy is noticeable. When they are pregnant they think doing house work and as well as going to work is okay. They believe keeping active during their pregnancy quickens their labor. They avoid eating hot mustard when they are pregnant because they think it causes miscarriage.  They believe that buying things for the baby before it is born is bad luck.  In their culture it isn't acceptable to be pregnant and not be married. That will being shame to their family. When the baby is actually born they can do a day called “tasting day". That's when the mother and her friends celebrate the birth of their baby. The mother is being catered to by her friends. They are doing special dances and sampling and tasting the food that the mother couldn’t eat while she was pregnant. Only women can attend this event. This is just like a baby shower that Americans have but it’s without gifts and it’s after the baby is born.

When the women are in labor the man cannot be in the labor room. She can allow her mother or a friend of hers. Some delivers are assisted of a midwife that is a member of the mother's community. After the baby is born the mother rests in the house for 40 and is separated from their husbands and is not sexually active during that time. Also they eat something called genfo. They believe that it helps gain their back strength and heal quickly.

  In conclusion women in Ethiopia suffer in so many ways. Alot if it comes from individuals that know them the most like their husband and or their families. Ethiopia women do the best that they can do to help provide their family but they don't get the gratitude in return that they should get.

                                                   

                                                   Works Cited

Kiene, Susan M., and SV Subramanian. "BMC Public Health." Event-level Association between Alcohol Use and Unprotected Sex during Last Sex: Evidence from Population-based Surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa (2013): 1-8. Academic Search Premier. Web. 4 Aug. 2013.

Manam, Alemayehu G. "Ethiopia Domestic Violence « Ethiopian News." Ethiopian Review. N.p., Sept. 2011. Web. 06 Oct. 2013.

Molakign, Athalegn. "Ethiopian Cultural Profile." — EthnoMed. N.p., 1996. Web. 06 Oct. 2013.

Moore, Ami R. "Springer Science+ Business Media." Types of Violence against Women and Factors Influencing Intimate Partner Violence in Togo ( West Africa) (2008): 778-83. Academic Search Premier. Web. 4 Oct. 2013.

Seager, Joni. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World: Fourth Edition. N.p.: Penguin, 2008. Print.

Tsehai, Tiberah. "Domestic Violence, a Crisis in the Ethiopian Community?  | TsehaiNY.com." TsehaiNYcom RSS. N.p., 20 July 2008. Web. 06 Oct. 2013.

Mexico

Lauren Rachel Canales

Professor Adrianne Brown

WST 250

10/15/13

How Religion and Culture affect Woman in Mexico

In this blog assignment I will be addressing how religion, politics and culture has affected women in Mexico and their reproductive rights. I will be including information that describes some of Mexico’s past and present and how women have had to live and are living with today. I also want to better understand and describe the culture of Mexico and how the “machismo” has been an issue for women. I will also be talking about the violence that women go through in Mexico.

In Mexico, an issue that woman have been struggling with is gender equality with the Catholic Church and politics. President Juarez was the one who had declared the separation of church and state in the mid-19^th century. This is an issue because some woman have opposing views with the Catholic Church in Mexico. Woman have been trying to fight over their reproductive rights, since the 1970’s. They were wanting “access to modern methods of contraceptives.”¹ It wasn’t until some feminist women in universities started protesting, and in 1988 Cuauhtémoc Cardenas “was the first presidential candidate to include some of the feminist claims in his electoral agenda”² but he sadly for woman, he was defeated. Though before that, the Church still has had a major influence on laws, when there still should be a separation. “[I]n 1972 the Church called for reduced family size, and has promoted family planning clinics and education programs.”³ Even today in Mexico, the Catholic Church still dictates the laws for woman and their health. “Abortion continues to be allowed only in cases of rape, health conditions, or fetal defects, except in Mexico City, where it was legalized in 2005.  Today as well artificial birth control and abortion are prohibited by the Catholic Church; these prohibitions have serious societal and economic repercussions.”⁴

Today, Mexican politics has become more religiously conservative since the National Action Party (PAN) claimed the presidency in 2000 and again in 2006.” We can see that religion does play a major role in woman’s life whether they like it or not. Even if they have tried to speak out Mexico continues to be more reserved about woman’s rights and their reproductive health.  One significant thing that has occurred recently is that in the State of Mexico City, Mexico in 2007. “[L]egislature passed landmark legislation decriminalizing elective abortion in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy.”⁵ So this has been a great first step to improving and addressing reproductive rights as well as woman’s rights. The law even included “sexual education curriculum in schools and called for widespread access to contraceptive methods.”⁵ Though it seems to be that there is always a push-back and woman and their rights are being challenged.

The roles that Mexican woman have played are what we have seen in the United States, it’s has taken years and battles and today woman are seeing better results and a way of living. Though it this wasn’t the case. Woman in Mexico, too were seen as the typical house wife and were not allowed to work or have a say in politics. These women do not just want to live at home and do domestic house work and take care of their husbands too. They want to be more than a wife and be seen just as important as a man. For example they were not giving the right to vote until1953. Yet, one of the most troubling thing that woman in Mexico have to face is men having to have full power and control over everything. They call it machismo: ”an attitude, quality, or way of behaving that agrees with traditional ideas about men being very strong and aggressive.”⁶ So Gender roles are very vivid in their everyday lives, where woman have to obey their husbands/men figures in their lives, and men get to do as they please. The problem of this is that those woman who do depend on men, then depend on men their whole lives and so what we tend to see then is that these woman depend on their fathers, brothers, then their husbands, sons and son-in-laws. So some of these woman don’t get to see past what these male influencers tell them and show them. So some of these woman have not been aware that they too, like men have rights and have the right to their own life and decisions. Though over the years we are seeing woman get out of this cultural tradition and try to take on independent roles such as getting higher paying jobs, careers, and ultimately not letting a man dictate their lives, but better yet we are now seeing woman take on these leading and executive positions just like any man. Yet once again I seem to keep jumping back and forth with the role that women have in Mexico.

Today we are seeing more violence against women in Mexico. The “Mexican National Institute of Women suggest that 45 percent of women in the country suffer some form of violence in their lives.”⁷ One of the biggest issues that have arose is the disappearance and murders of more than 500 girls and women in the last 12 years in Ciudad Juarez and Chihuahua City.⁸ This is has been considered a national problem now as well. There has been many cases were you hear of women going to or trying to leave Mexico and disappear and this has been because of the gang and drug lords that have invaded and is controlling the boarder. They snatch the women and rape them, holding them hostage and asking for a ransom, and also pursing to kill most of the women that they take. This is why we are seeing less people wanting to travel to Mexico and less people wanting to cross the border like they always have to visit Mexico. The military is more active than ever trying to not only capture the drug lords but to protect these women so they aren’t captured.

Over all women in Mexico have been dealing with many issues since the mid-19^th century. Whether it’s been women trying to have a voice and be able to be a part of a political movement these woman do not want to be left unseen in the shadows of men. These woman too want more freedom to be able to express themselves the way they want to. It doesn’t seem fair that the Catholic Church is still a very huge influence in Mexico today that has more of a voice than women do. These women should have more equal rights as men, now that we are seeing more women holding higher career titles. I also believe that there should be some type of program and gathering were they can teach men about their machismo because that too is what is influencing women in the other direction and how more women experience domestic violence. It’s also important to look into what more the Mexican government and military can do about the disappearances and murders of women by the border.

Works Cited

1./2.  Maria Consuelo Mejia, et al. "Politics, Religion And Gender Equality In Contemporary Mexico: Women's Sexuality And Reproductive Rights In A Contested Secular State." Third World Quarterly 31.6 (2010): 989-1005. Academic Search Premier. Web. 13 Oct. 2013.

3. "World Savvy Monitor." World Savvy Monitor. 2013 World Savvy Monitor, 10 Aug. 2009. Web. 13 Oct. 2013.

4. Samuelson, Ruth. "Church and State in Mexico: A Political Party Wavers on Women's Rights | Politics | Religion Dispatches." ReligionDispatches. Religion Dispatches 2013, 12 Oct. 2011. Web. 13 Oct. 2013.

5. Becker, Davida, and Claudia Díaz Olavarrieta. "Decriminalization Of Abortion In Mexico City: The Effects On Women's Reproductive Rights." American Journal Of Public Health 103.4 (2013): 590-593. Academic Search Premier. Web. 13 Oct. 2013.

6. "Machismo." Merriam-Webster. Merriam-Webster, n.d. Web. 17 Oct. 2013

7. "In Mexico, Women's Advocates Make Slow but Steady Gains against Violence." In Mexico, Women's Advocates Make Slow but Steady Gains against Violence. N.p., n.d. Web. 16 Oct. 2013.

8. Seager, Joni, and Joni Seager. "Murder." The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World: Completely Revised and Updated. New York, NY: Penguin, 2003. N. pag. Print.

Egypt

Petra Shaffer Gottschalk

When one thinks “Egypt,” the first thought that comes into their head is likely one of the pyramids or the Sphynx.  However, the culture of the people of Egypt is one so unique and distinct that it is hard to not acknowledge it.  One vital piece of any culture is the women – who they are, what their place is, how they contribute.  Egyptian women are typically considered mysterious, unique, mostly because of the time that they lived in.  The ancient culture of Egypt shaped strong, powerful women.  Today, the status of women in Egypt has gone down significantly through treatment, access, and general human rights. 

In ancient times, unlike most other ancient civilizations, Egyptian women carried many of the same rights as the men, particularly legal and economic rights.  The main divide as far as rights were concerned was within the social class of the time (Tyldesley).  Women were able to:  manage, own, sell property; resolve and/or conclude any legal settlement; be a contracting partner in marriage or divorce; free slaves; make adoptions; and sue at law (Tyldesley).  Egyptian women had freedom of possession as well, including the ability to remain in possession of her property that she brought into a marriage with her.  She was also “free to bequeath property from her husband to her children or even to her own brothers and sisters…” (Tyldesley).  It is interesting that women in the ancient times of Egypt had such freedom and ability to live a self-sufficient lifestyle as opposed to today in many other parts of the world where women are struggling to even be able to divorce their husbands if they are abusive.  Even more interesting is the lack of knowledge of reproductive rights in current Egypt in spite of the freedom and universal knowledge.

In Egypt, a gynecological company did a study of female university students to test how familiar they were with common reproductive health issues.  The results did not just indicate a severe lack of access to certain necessities but an extreme overall lack of knowledge.  220 women from El Minya University were asked questions about reproductive anatomy, menstrual cycles, teen pregnancy, abortion, family planning, HIV/AIDS and other sexually transmitted diseases, among other topics (El Gelany & Moussa).  There were topics that most of the women were familiar with or at least aware of, such as difficulties in teen pregnancy or the existence of  HIV/AIDS.  However, to put the lack of knowledge into perspective, some of the statistics were astonishing.  Only fifty-five percent were aware of the earliest age that a boy can father a baby, fifteen percent knew the meaning of abortion, eleven percent were aware of the harmful effects of unsafe abortion, fifty-five percent knew the danger signs of pregnancy (i.e. – missing periods), and nineteen percent did not realize that both partners need to be treated if one partner is infected with an STD (El Gelany & Moussa). 

It is obvious that an overwhelming number of the women had not been given the proper education on reproductive health issues.  However, the study drew from fourteen different cities and eleven different colleges.  The majority of the women who were knowledgeable on the topics came from a more urban area and often from families where their parents had been highly educated as well.  To counteract, there are parts of Egypt where topics of sexuality and sex-related issues are not allowed to be talked about (El Gelany & Moussa).  An interesting fact to counteract the lack of knowledge surrounding reproductive health is the fact that ancient Egypt was one of the first cultures to use condom-like creations in order to prevent pregnancy or infection (Condomerie).     

In the study it is mentioned that many women have problems simply attending a clinic while in Egypt (El Gelany & Moussa).  The fact that women are afraid to even go to a clinic for any sort of help is an obvious contributor to the lack of knowledge and access to proper materials.  The sexist atmosphere in Egypt prevents these women from being able to properly get to this information.  Many of these women are afraid to even go outside simply because of the heavily misogynistic environment – women walking alone are frequently assaulted in the streets by mobs of men (Penny).  When one lives in that environment it is easy to see how things such as reproductive health can get swept under the rug and other issues, such as how to simply get from one place to another to carry out mediocre everyday tasks.  Interestingly enough, despite the vast amount of women’s rights during the ancient times, Egypt has dealt with a long history of misogyny that in the past few generations has taken control to the point that all women, whether they be natives of Egypt or not, are afraid to go into the street, as Laurie Penny puts it, “whether they’re marching to bring down the government or popping to the shop for a pint of milk” (Penny). 

The sexual assault culture has gotten so severe in Egypt that there is a designated task force to help women protestors, the OpAntiSH (Operation Anti Sexual Harassment).  In Egypt, sexual assault is used as a weapon almost to intimidate women into remaining docile and domestic.  According to some members of OpAntiSH, the biggest barrier that has been overcome for the women is the barrier of fear and shame surrounding being raped or sexually assaulted.  The women now live with the mentality of “We’ve been violated and we will not be silenced” (Penny).  However, regardless of the fights that these women have fought to not have to be afraid to leave, there is still a very large gender gap in regards to access to resources.  The Penguin Atlas of Women ranks Egypt as one of the lowest 10 countries on the Gender Gap Index, meaning that women and men in Egypt are not only unequal, but the women are hardly considered human.  Another study from the Atlas from 2000 indicated that women from Egypt need to have permission from a male relative in order to travel or obtain a passport (Seager 19).     

Another prevalent issue in Egypt is that of honor killings.  A study conducted in 2000 found that approximately 5,000 women in the world are killed every year by members of their families for the sake of “honor” (Lee & Shaw 385).  Honor killings are “based on the belief, deeply rooted in some cultures, of women as objects and commodities, not as human beings endowed with dignity and rights equal to those of men” (Lee & Shaw 385).  This practice is very common among women who are seeking divorce in an abusive marriage or who have been raped.  In Egypt, it is reported that forty-seven percent of honor killings are done because the woman was raped and thus dishonored her family (Seager 31).  The question of how the woman was abused never comes into play because in that environment it was not abuse, they solely see it as dishonor.  The woman has nowhere to turn, not even to her family because they are usually the ones initiating the killings in order to restore the “honor” that was lost. 

Egypt is an example of a country that started with a culture of wealth and equality and has since become a culture of misogyny and inferiority.  The general lack of resources available to women is not simply because of a lack of education, it is because of a lack of dignity and respect for women and their health.  There are many organizations that are working towards making change in Egypt, whether it is to prevent the sexual harassment on the street or whether it is to end the honor killings.  However, organizations are meant to kick-start.  The entire country and culture of Egypt has to come together to solve these problems and return the rights to the women that they deserve. 

Works Cited

El Gelany, Saad, and Ola Moussa. "Reproductive Health Awareness Among Educated Young Women In Egypt." International Journal Of Gynecology & Obstetrics 120.1 (2013): 23-26. Academic Search Premier. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

“History of the Condom.”  Condomerie.  Web.  17 October 2013. 

Lee, Janet and Susan M. Shaw.  Women Worldwide – Transnational Feminist Perspectives on Women.  McGraw Hill.  New York, 2011. 

Penny, Laurie. "With Tasers And Placards, The Women Of Egypt Are Fighting Back Against Sexism." New Statesman142.5145 (2013): 20. Points of View Reference Center. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

Seager, Joni.  The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World.  Penguin Books.  New York, 2009. 

Tyldesley, Joyce.  “The Role of Women in Ancient Egyptian Society.”  Cornell University.  Web.  17 October 2013. 

Mali

Niani Cunningham

A Once Rich Empire Turned to Hell on Earth for Women: How Colonialism and Civil War Played a Role

Mali is a modestly sized country in western Africa with a lot of current conflict, yet a very rich history. The Mali Empire was built around the city of “Niani” which was the leader, Sundiata’s, homeland and its capital city. The empire stretched from the Senegal River to the salt mines of Taghaza therefore making it extremely rich in natural resources. The kingdom had lots of farmland with beans, rice, millet, cotton, peanuts, and many other important crops. It also monopolized the gold trade by taxing gold and often using it as a form of currency. Mansa Musa, Sundiatas grandson, later became the empires king. A very efficient and wise leader, he created its government and divided the empire into provinces, each having their own governor, mayor, and a huge army for peace keeping.  Timbuktu was an important part of the empire because it consisted of many universities that scholars from Europe, the Middle East, and other parts of Africa came to learn and enjoy the rich markets. Islam spread quickly to the people of Mali. However, it was not forced upon anyone and many still practiced the ancient polytheistic faith that taught about “The spirits of the land.” Mansa Musa eventually died and around 1645 the decline of the empire followed. Many states then declared independence, which weakened the empire to its end.

During the late 19^th century Mali fell under the control of France and was labeled “French Sudan”. In 1959 French Sudan and Senegal banned together to rebel against France and labeled themselves “The Mali Federation.” Eventually, in 1960, Senegal withdrew and the federation became the independent Republic of Mali. They elected their own president and their government was modeled after socialism.  This government was over thrown due to steady economic decline, which had rebel groups fed up. Many pushed for a multi party democracy but the government was unwilling to fully give in. Civil unrest ensued and more conflict arose around 1990. Much of the violence was due to ethnic tension in the north following the return of Tuaregs to the nation. Tuaregs are a nomadic group whose ethnicity is a mixture of Arab, east, and West African. In 2012 greater conflict ensued in northern Mali over land. The Tuareg people want independence and control of an area known as Azawad. Essentially this is a conflict between the Malian army and rebel Islamic groups that include the Tuaregs, who want control over a certain part of the country.  As we know, war has a huge impact on basic standard of living especially for women.

Around 80 percent of Malians are followers of Islam. This permits men to have multiple wives and it is very common in Mali to have at least two. Each wife is responsible for household duties such as cooking and cleaning but are rarely just “housewives.” Many make an income doing things such as gardening and making crafts and food to sell. It is uncommon for women to wear a veil in Mali and many stick to the traditional West African garb.  According to The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World, 84% of women in Mali are literate while only 67% of men are, but only 31% of women are enrolled in University. The New Family Code of Mali was drafted by the National Assembly in 2011 but has been delayed due to opposition from Muslim religious organizations.  This code was drafted to challenge the constitution and replace the old code. It was created by various women’s organizations and religious organizations by going out to Mali villages and cities to discuss issues facing women. There are disagreements around things such as female genital mutilation and marriage. “There are a number of articles that are issues of contention. Article 5 concerns the integrity of the human person. According to the Muslim religious organizations, this Article could be used to oppose Female Genital Mutilation (FGM). But while Type II (excision) is the most widespread form of FGM in Mali, according to Islam it is neither an obligation nor a requirement, but rather an optional act. Article 56 concerns the choice of domicile. According to the new Code, this choice could be based on the professions of either of the spouses. This constitutes a real advancement for women’s rights, because Article 34 of the old Code stipulated that the husband was the head of the family. As a result, the household expenses weighed mainly on him; the choice of the family residence was his; the wife was obliged to live with him and he was obliged to accommodate her. Due to this provision, many women therefore lost their job opportunities and income sources in order to follow their husbands. Article 281 relates to the secularism of marriage, which has been the main cause of contention within the Muslim religious organizations. In fact, 35% of women are dispossessed and chased out of the matrimonial home because they do not have a civil marriage certificate. Islamic marriage does not have a contract that serves as concrete proof of the marriage bond, which means that in the case of divorce or the death of their husbands, women face difficulties claiming their rights before the law. Article 282 sets the minimum age for marriage at 18 years for both women and men. Article 311 relates to the obligation of obedience of the wife, which has been replaced in the code by mutual respect. Articles 556 to 573 relate to the authority of the father which has been replaced by parental authority. The controversial Articles therefore concern issues which women’s rights activists are working on in order to improve the daily lives of women and to promote their fundamental human rights. This new Family Code is a true effort to harmonize Mali’s national laws and align them with international laws on women’s rights and the rights of the child; such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDEW), ratified by Mali in 1985, the Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of Women, ratified by Mali in 2005, and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.” This code shows that there are in fact people making efforts to better the lives of women in Mali. Because of the control that Islamic culture has over the country, it may be challenge to put these rights into action.

        Another problem faced by women in this country is the quality of reproductive health. An overwhelming majority of women in Mali give birth at home, which contributes to its high rates of infant and maternal mortality as well as complications such as fistula (“A fistula is a hole. An obstetric fistula of the kind that occurs in many developing countries is a hole between a woman's birth passage and one or more of her internal organs. This hole develops over many days of obstructed labor, when the pressure of the baby's head against the mother's pelvis cuts off blood supply to delicate tissues in the region. The dead tissue falls away and the woman is left with a hole between her vagina and her bladder (called a vesicovaginal fistula or VVF) and sometimes between her vagina and rectum (rectovaginal fistula, RVF). This hole results in permanent incontinence of urine and/or feces. A majority of women who develop fistulas are abandoned by their husbands and ostracized by their communities because of their inability to have children and their foul smell. Traumatic fistula is the result of sexual violence.  The injury can occur through rape or women being butchered from the inside with bayonets, wood or even rifles.  The aim is to destroy the women and the community within which the sufferer lives. Once committed the survivor, her husband, children and extended family become traumatized and humiliated…”). Studies show that the more education a woman has, the more likely she is to deliver in a hospital but a very low percentage of women actually receive education in Mali (as stated early in the essay).

As stated earlier, war has a massive affect on the quality of life for people of that specific country. French colonialism had a massive impact as well and they are still involved with the country to this day. One of France’s main energy sources is Uranium and Mali is coincidentally rich in the element.  Many believe that France’s involvement in the conflict is “nothing less than the neocolonial re-conquest of its former colony in the strategically important West African region. “ In Mali, the war over land puts a lot of Islamic rebel groups in power, which creates a tough place to be a woman. Most of the problems women face in this country are due to lack of education and education is sparse for everyone because of Mali’s extreme poverty and civil unrest. If women in this country had access to education, they would, statistically speaking, get married later on in life, have less children, and generally be less likely to die in child birth-Their quality of life would improve.

Almeida, Massan D' "The New Family Code Of Mali And Why Its Promulgation Has Been Delayed." The New Family Code of Mali and Why Its Promulgation Has Been Delayed / Friday Files / News & Analysis / Homepage. Awid, 20 Apr. 2011. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

BBC. "Mali Crisis: Key Players." BBC News. BBC, 03 Dec. 2013. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

Cunningham, Finnian. "Preplanned Mali Invasion Reveals France's Neo-colonialistic Agenda -- Puppet Masters -- Sott.net." SOTT.net. Information Clearing House, 16 Jan. 2013. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

Fistula Foundation. "The Fistula Foundation : What Is Fistula? : Fast Facts & FAQs." The Fistula Foundation : What Is Fistula? : Fast Facts & FAQs. Fistula Foundation, 2012. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

Seager, Joni. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World. New York, NY [u.a.: Penguin, 2009. Print.

The Women of Iran

Halima Bareentto

Adrienne Brown                     

WST-250

10/17/13

The Women of Iran

Prior to 1976, Iran had long been ally of the west since the toppling of a democratically elected prime minister with the Shah of Iran. A state of revolt soon took place which instilled an Islamic government (Sharia Law). Since the instilment of the Islamic government, there have been many religious and cultural barriers that woman in Iran face on a daily basis such as the mandatory wear of the Hijab, strict marriage laws, and little to no say in the government . Iran, as of date is one of the most scrutinized nations in the Middle East. The status and role of woman has increasingly changed in the country and has been labeled as incredibly misogynistic by western powers since the Revolution in 1977. Iran has been lumped into the other countless Middle Eastern countries whose human rights abuses against women have been documented by agencies such as Amnesty International and the U.N. But the situation regarding Iran is much more complex than most Middle Eastern countries. Iranian women suffer at the hands of a patriarchal society in regards to legal and cultural freedom but their desire for equality is strong as evident by the fact that 2/3 of university students are women. Many strides like this are being made to institute more gender equality in Iran

Iranian women are granted little to no freedoms regarding family matters. Women can marry as young as the age 13, and the violation of this law can result in criminal consequences. Article 646 of the former Penal Code states: “Marriage before puberty without the permission of the guardian is forbidden. If a man violates Article 1041 of the Civil Code and marries a girl before she reaches the age of puberty, he shall be sentenced to six months to two years’ ta’zir imprisonment.” There is little information regarding what the ages these marriage parties are but there is wide consensus that many girls who marry at the age of 13 are marrying men who are significantly older than them. This trend is also very common in rural regions where there is little oversight in the apprehending of the law. The natural guardian of the girl (father or paternal grandfather) can grant a marriage to the girl without her consent; this can be applied to even adult women. Boys, however do not need a natural guardian whether they are a minor or an adult. The marriage is dependent on whether or not the girl’s virginity is still intact. Another restriction is the religion of the spouse. According to Sharia Law (which Iran is under) a man can marry a non-Muslim (must be Christian or Jewish) as long as they have the intention to bring Islam to their lives later. This is not the case for women. Women are not allowed to marry non-Muslim men. There are even more barriers for a woman to marry a foreign national. Even if there is no religious difference between the two, she must seek special permission from the government. Under Iranian law, men can take up to four wives, while women can only have one husband. A woman can be granted a divorce if she did not express agreement over her husband taking a second wife. Also, the assets must be split between each wife equally. According to article 16 of Iranian law there are certain mandates that must be met before a man can take a second wife; “First wife’s consent, inability of first wife in performing marital duties, non-submission of the first wife to the husband, affliction of the wife to insanity or other difficulty to cure diseases, conviction of the wife according to article, addiction of the wife according to article, wife’s abandonment of family life, wife’s infertility, disappearance of the wife according to article.” Under Islamic law, marriage is seen as a contract so there are certain expectations that each party must meet. If a woman fails to meet her expectation of sexual submission and obedience she could lose her rights in the marriage. The same goes to men. If a man fails to provide his wife’s dowry, or provide financial and health stability to his spouse, he could be sued by his wife and sent to jail, or required to pay the fine by the courts. Honor killings are usually done by a spouse, brother, or father against a female who has somehow “dishonored” the family by either refusing an arranged marriage, engaging in pre-marital sex, and extramarital affairs. These killings are a presence in some parts of Iran. Due to little reporting by the government there isn’t a clear cut number on how many honor killings take place a year but some reports put an average of 50 committed in 2008-2009. Under Sharia Law, a father cannot be jailed for more than 3 to 5 years for killing his child, and if a brother were to commit the honor killing, the girl’s next of kin could decide whether he be punished or forgiven for his crime. This leaves little to no legal ramifications for those who commit these honor killings and continues to perpetuate this vicious and inhumane cycle. 

There has been a rapid decline in fertility in Iran since 1977; this decline can be correlated with the national family program which ranks as one of the top family planning programs in the world. The family planning services provide a free of charge service for contraceptives efforts such as condoms, pills, IUD, and injections. The gap in contraceptive use has also been significantly smaller between urban and rural areas because women all over the nation now have access to these family planning centers and counseling options. The only condom factory in the Middle East is in Iran. Also, according to the “Penguin Atlas of Woman” by John Seager, more than 75% of married woman have been using modern contraception since 2000.

Distribution of Iranian Women (Married of Reproductive Age) Using Contraception, by Method

            Despite strides in reproduction rights in Iran, women are still facing gender inequalities when it comes to work and roles in government. Women make up 15% of the working population, which is the lowest in the Middle East. Women can be prevented from working by her husband or her family, and women are also paid significantly less than man and are usually working in low-level jobs. Currently, and prior to the Islamic Revolution Iranian women have struggled to find there voice in the government. Prime Minister Ahmadinejad appointed a woman as to be his Minister of Health and Medical Education, marking the first time a woman to serve as minister under the Islamic government.

In conclusion, there have been much headway in building a more gender equal society in Iran but there are still wide gaps in the expectations between men and woman. Heavy cultural and religious factors play too much of a role in women that deters there progress as positive members of society. There will never be anything close to equal until the Iranian government separates religion from law. This will leave women with more rights in the way they wish to live and will hold individuals accountable who try to stop this.

Works Cited

Samanian, Faezeh. "The (Slow) Rise of Iran's Women." The Diplomat. The Diplomat, 22 Sept. 2013. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

Nayyeri, Mohammad H. "Gender Inequality and Discrimination: The Case of Iranian Women."Http://iranhrdc.org. Iran Human Rights Documentation Center, 8 Mar. 2013. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

Roudi, Farzaneh. "Youth, Women's Rights, and Political Change in Iran." Youth, Women's Rights, and Political Change in Iran. Population Reference Bureau, n.d. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

"Humanitarian News and Analysis." IRINnews. IRIN, n.d. Web. 17 Oct. 2013.

Seager, Joni. The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World. New York, NY [u.a.: Penguin, 2009. Print.

Japan

Japan

Amanda Moua

Japan as “developed” as it is has its own problems. No country is perfect and this place is a perfect example of that. Although they ship out top-of-the-line technology and is regarded as a place with expensive tastes, there are problems bubbling just below the surface. When visiting a place like Tokyo one notices how futuristic it looks and the lights that surround the city but what they don’t see is issues that trouble the country. The main problems that have the country stirring are the declining birth rate and acts against women.

A rising issue in Japan is (to put it bluntly) the amount of sex women are having. The concern is that they aren’t having enough. Crazy right? Well it’s true. Over the years many reports have been made about the working women in Japan. In society’s opinion, they have been too work-orientated to think about anything else, including procreating. In fact, the average number of child births per year is fewer than 2.1 and not looking to rise anytime soon.

The concerns originate from the rising group of the elderly. The age gap has shown that there are many older folks but there is no one to take care of them. One reason comes from women having different priorities than they used to. As great as it sounds that women are being independent and working more, it means that they are choosing not to start families. Tokyo has the lowest birth rate of all. The danger is that next century there will be lots of people over the age of 65 but not enough young people to take care of them.

In Japan it is not only that fewer babies are being born but also that the country’s elderly population is growing. The country already has one of the highest life expectancy but it is expected to rise in the coming years. Because of this the Japanese welfare system is having a difficult time finding money for the elderly. What will eventually happen is the relationship between those who are contributing to the pension system and those taking from the pension will deteriorate. At some time the system will go bankrupt.

Japanese women see getting married and having kids as limitations, they’ll think they’re losing their freedom. I think that, that’s the biggest reason for the declining birth rate. In fact, almost 40% of Japanese women and men between the ages of 25 and 30 live with their parents – single and without children. For those types of people society has given them a nickname: parasite single. The name is given because they say those people just sponge off their parents to live a comfortable and carefree life.

Many women today are rejecting the traditional role of being a married stay-at-home housewife. More and more women want to work and have a role in the modern Japanese society. This steams from the oppression that Japanese women have felt throughout the years. They have grown tires of men thinking they’re better that this is a way to prove them wrong. They want to focus on work to prove that they can make a difference just as much as a man can. It is very empowering but now that’s all they focus on. They have yet to find a good middle. For women having children makes it difficult to work so they don’t consider it important to their future.

In response to this the government has launched a plan to provide more child care for working mothers. They have also though about free tuition for preschoolers and elementary children to encourage women to have kids. They try and get rid of the financial worries of having babies. Also to prevent a downfall in the future society many officials have tried to create plans to persuade women to get married and have children. Seido Noda is an example of a legislator who has worked on the birthrate issue for years. Her proposal is a little unusual; she says that if the government wants more people to have babies, the country shouldn’t let women have abortions. With 200,000 pregnancies being terminated per year, she says to counter the falling birthrate: they should start at the beginning. Regardless of opinion on the issue one sees how seriously Japan’s leaders are taking the birthrate as a national issue.

Regardless of where you live there is some sort of abuse going on, most against women. Japanese society and culture has taken a sexist view that women are not as equal as men and so they can be beaten and suffer at the hands of a man. We assume that domestic violence comes entirely from husbands; however that is not the case. Domestic violence can come from anywhere. The perpetrators can include current husbands, past husbands, boyfriends, fiancés or strangers.

Thanks to the volunteer women groups and activists in Japan who have worked hard against the problem of violence, the Japanese government enacted the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims in 2001. It was the first official recognition by Japanese politicians and law makers in Japanese history that domestic violence was considered a crime. Although it was a good stepping stone to prevent spousal violence, it was met with criticism because it did not go far enough to provide legal protection and safety for a long period of time. The act was revised in 2004 to some extent but was also met with criticism there for the same reasons.

The assaults of women can be physical or emotional. Physical assaults usually occur in the household where things can be kept private and it’s easier to force the women to keep her mouth shut. Unfortunately the reporting rate is drastically low for rape. The occurrence of rape is not noticeably lower than that of other countries but the number of cases reported in official statistics is extremely low. Many women are afraid of the assault happening again so they keep their mouth shut but the main reason why they don’t say anything is because of shame. Keeping the family honor is a very important characteristic in the Japanese culture that they will do anything to keep it upright, even if that includes lying to the police. Some victim support groups estimate that rape cases in Japan amount to more than 10 times the National Police Agency’s official figure.

A big problem in Japan involving sexual assaults is molestation and groping on subway cars. There are a record numbers of sexual assaults that happen on Japan’s trains. Many are not sure why the attacks are so prevalent but there are a couple of theories. Japan’s rush hour produces a daily crush that makes it hard to really move around. Unfortunately that just makes it easier for perverts to let their hands explore. Groping is essentially a fetish like any other but I think it’s most common in Japan because the trains are so crowded. If they weren’t, then the gropers wouldn’t be so bold and able to get away with it.

Many ask why women just don’t attack back or scream but it’s easier said than done. Like I said before trains get so crowded that even if a woman saw her attacker she wouldn’t be able to move easily to protect herself. Another reason why women don’t fight back as much is because for centuries women have been so severely repressed and placed beneath men that they don’t say or cry for help; they just endure it. They also worry about if anyone will believe them anyways since they’re a woman. For years Japanese culture has been “stuck” in a sexist mindset and the notion of woman’s inferiority is deeply ingrained into history. Another reason is shame. What woman wants to explain how humiliating it was to be sexually harassed in a crammed train full of strangers?

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